Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, ISSN - 0973 - 709X

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On Sep 2018




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Prof. Somashekhar Nimbalkar
Head, Department of Pediatrics, Pramukhswami Medical College, Karamsad
Chairman, Research Group, Charutar Arogya Mandal, Karamsad
National Joint Coordinator - Advanced IAP NNF NRP Program
Ex-Member, Governing Body, National Neonatology Forum, New Delhi
Ex-President - National Neonatology Forum Gujarat State Chapter
Department of Pediatrics, Pramukhswami Medical College, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat.
On Sep 2018




Dr. Kalyani R

"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research is at present a well-known Indian originated scientific journal which started with a humble beginning. I have been associated with this journal since many years. I appreciate the Editor, Dr. Hemant Jain, for his constant effort in bringing up this journal to the present status right from the scratch. The journal is multidisciplinary. It encourages in publishing the scientific articles from postgraduates and also the beginners who start their career. At the same time the journal also caters for the high quality articles from specialty and super-specialty researchers. Hence it provides a platform for the scientist and researchers to publish. The other aspect of it is, the readers get the information regarding the most recent developments in science which can be used for teaching, research, treating patients and to some extent take preventive measures against certain diseases. The journal is contributing immensely to the society at national and international level."



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Sri Devaraj Urs Medical College
Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education and Research , Kolar, Karnataka
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Dr. Saumya Navit

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Professor and Head
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Saraswati Dental College
Lucknow
On Sep 2018




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Dr. Arunava Biswas
MD, DM (Clinical Pharmacology)
Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology
Calcutta National Medical College & Hospital , Kolkata




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Best regards,
C.S. Ramesh Babu,
Associate Professor of Anatomy,
Muzaffarnagar Medical College,
Muzaffarnagar.
On Aug 2018




Dr. Arundhathi. S
"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR) is a reputed peer reviewed journal and is constantly involved in publishing high quality research articles related to medicine. Its been a great pleasure to be associated with this esteemed journal as a reviewer and as an author for a couple of years. The editorial board consists of many dedicated and reputed experts as its members and they are doing an appreciable work in guiding budding researchers. JCDR is doing a commendable job in scientific research by promoting excellent quality research & review articles and case reports & series. The reviewers provide appropriate suggestions that improve the quality of articles. I strongly recommend my fraternity to encourage JCDR by contributing their valuable research work in this widely accepted, user friendly journal. I hope my collaboration with JCDR will continue for a long time".



Dr. Arundhathi. S
MBBS, MD (Pathology),
Sanjay Gandhi institute of trauma and orthopedics,
Bengaluru.
On Aug 2018




Dr. Mamta Gupta,
"It gives me great pleasure to be associated with JCDR, since last 2-3 years. Since then I have authored, co-authored and reviewed about 25 articles in JCDR. I thank JCDR for giving me an opportunity to improve my own skills as an author and a reviewer.
It 's a multispecialty journal, publishing high quality articles. It gives a platform to the authors to publish their research work which can be available for everyone across the globe to read. The best thing about JCDR is that the full articles of all medical specialties are available as pdf/html for reading free of cost or without institutional subscription, which is not there for other journals. For those who have problem in writing manuscript or do statistical work, JCDR comes for their rescue.
The journal has a monthly publication and the articles are published quite fast. In time compared to other journals. The on-line first publication is also a great advantage and facility to review one's own articles before going to print. The response to any query and permission if required, is quite fast; this is quite commendable. I have a very good experience about seeking quick permission for quoting a photograph (Fig.) from a JCDR article for my chapter authored in an E book. I never thought it would be so easy. No hassles.
Reviewing articles is no less a pain staking process and requires in depth perception, knowledge about the topic for review. It requires time and concentration, yet I enjoy doing it. The JCDR website especially for the reviewers is quite user friendly. My suggestions for improving the journal is, more strict review process, so that only high quality articles are published. I find a a good number of articles in Obst. Gynae, hence, a new journal for this specialty titled JCDR-OG can be started. May be a bimonthly or quarterly publication to begin with. Only selected articles should find a place in it.
An yearly reward for the best article authored can also incentivize the authors. Though the process of finding the best article will be not be very easy. I do not know how reviewing process can be improved. If an article is being reviewed by two reviewers, then opinion of one can be communicated to the other or the final opinion of the editor can be communicated to the reviewer if requested for. This will help one’s reviewing skills.
My best wishes to Dr. Hemant Jain and all the editorial staff of JCDR for their untiring efforts to bring out this journal. I strongly recommend medical fraternity to publish their valuable research work in this esteemed journal, JCDR".



Dr. Mamta Gupta
Consultant
(Ex HOD Obs &Gynae, Hindu Rao Hospital and associated NDMC Medical College, Delhi)
Aug 2018




Dr. Rajendra Kumar Ghritlaharey

"I wish to thank Dr. Hemant Jain, Editor-in-Chief Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR), for asking me to write up few words.
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium i e; into the words and sentences on paper. Quality medical manuscript writing in particular, demands not only a high-quality research, but also requires accurate and concise communication of findings and conclusions, with adherence to particular journal guidelines. In medical field whether working in teaching, private, or in corporate institution, everyone wants to excel in his / her own field and get recognised by making manuscripts publication.


Authors are the souls of any journal, and deserve much respect. To publish a journal manuscripts are needed from authors. Authors have a great responsibility for producing facts of their work in terms of number and results truthfully and an individual honesty is expected from authors in this regards. Both ways its true "No authors-No manuscripts-No journals" and "No journals–No manuscripts–No authors". Reviewing a manuscript is also a very responsible and important task of any peer-reviewed journal and to be taken seriously. It needs knowledge on the subject, sincerity, honesty and determination. Although the process of reviewing a manuscript is a time consuming task butit is expected to give one's best remarks within the time frame of the journal.
Salient features of the JCDR: It is a biomedical, multidisciplinary (including all medical and dental specialities), e-journal, with wide scope and extensive author support. At the same time, a free text of manuscript is available in HTML and PDF format. There is fast growing authorship and readership with JCDR as this can be judged by the number of articles published in it i e; in Feb 2007 of its first issue, it contained 5 articles only, and now in its recent volume published in April 2011, it contained 67 manuscripts. This e-journal is fulfilling the commitments and objectives sincerely, (as stated by Editor-in-chief in his preface to first edition) i e; to encourage physicians through the internet, especially from the developing countries who witness a spectrum of disease and acquire a wealth of knowledge to publish their experiences to benefit the medical community in patients care. I also feel that many of us have work of substance, newer ideas, adequate clinical materials but poor in medical writing and hesitation to submit the work and need help. JCDR provides authors help in this regards.
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Indexation and online availability: Indexation transforms the journal in some sense from its local ownership to the worldwide professional community and to the public.JCDR is indexed with Embase & EMbiology, Google Scholar, Index Copernicus, Chemical Abstracts Service, Journal seek Database, Indian Science Abstracts, to name few of them. Manuscriptspublished in JCDR are available on major search engines ie; google, yahoo, msn.
In the era of fast growing newer technologies, and in computer and internet friendly environment the manuscripts preparation, submission, review, revision, etc and all can be done and checked with a click from all corer of the world, at any time. Of course there is always a scope for improvement in every field and none is perfect. To progress, one needs to identify the areas of one's weakness and to strengthen them.
It is well said that "happy beginning is half done" and it fits perfectly with JCDR. It has grown considerably and I feel it has already grown up from its infancy to adolescence, achieving the status of standard online e-journal form Indian continent since its inception in Feb 2007. This had been made possible due to the efforts and the hard work put in it. The way the JCDR is improving with every new volume, with good quality original manuscripts, makes it a quality journal for readers. I must thank and congratulate Dr Hemant Jain, Editor-in-Chief JCDR and his team for their sincere efforts, dedication, and determination for making JCDR a fast growing journal.
Every one of us: authors, reviewers, editors, and publisher are responsible for enhancing the stature of the journal. I wish for a great success for JCDR."



Thanking you
With sincere regards
Dr. Rajendra Kumar Ghritlaharey, M.S., M. Ch., FAIS
Associate Professor,
Department of Paediatric Surgery, Gandhi Medical College & Associated
Kamla Nehru & Hamidia Hospitals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462 001 (India)
E-mail: drrajendrak1@rediffmail.com
On May 11,2011




Dr. Shankar P.R.

"On looking back through my Gmail archives after being requested by the journal to write a short editorial about my experiences of publishing with the Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research (JCDR), I came across an e-mail from Dr. Hemant Jain, Editor, in March 2007, which introduced the new electronic journal. The main features of the journal which were outlined in the e-mail were extensive author support, cash rewards, the peer review process, and other salient features of the journal.
Over a span of over four years, we (I and my colleagues) have published around 25 articles in the journal. In this editorial, I plan to briefly discuss my experiences of publishing with JCDR and the strengths of the journal and to finally address the areas for improvement.
My experiences of publishing with JCDR: Overall, my experiences of publishing withJCDR have been positive. The best point about the journal is that it responds to queries from the author. This may seem to be simple and not too much to ask for, but unfortunately, many journals in the subcontinent and from many developing countries do not respond or they respond with a long delay to the queries from the authors 1. The reasons could be many, including lack of optimal secretarial and other support. Another problem with many journals is the slowness of the review process. Editorial processing and peer review can take anywhere between a year to two years with some journals. Also, some journals do not keep the contributors informed about the progress of the review process. Due to the long review process, the articles can lose their relevance and topicality. A major benefit with JCDR is the timeliness and promptness of its response. In Dr Jain's e-mail which was sent to me in 2007, before the introduction of the Pre-publishing system, he had stated that he had received my submission and that he would get back to me within seven days and he did!
Most of the manuscripts are published within 3 to 4 months of their submission if they are found to be suitable after the review process. JCDR is published bimonthly and the accepted articles were usually published in the next issue. Recently, due to the increased volume of the submissions, the review process has become slower and it ?? Section can take from 4 to 6 months for the articles to be reviewed. The journal has an extensive author support system and it has recently introduced a paid expedited review process. The journal also mentions the average time for processing the manuscript under different submission systems - regular submission and expedited review.
Strengths of the journal: The journal has an online first facility in which the accepted manuscripts may be published on the website before being included in a regular issue of the journal. This cuts down the time between their acceptance and the publication. The journal is indexed in many databases, though not in PubMed. The editorial board should now take steps to index the journal in PubMed. The journal has a system of notifying readers through e-mail when a new issue is released. Also, the articles are available in both the HTML and the PDF formats. I especially like the new and colorful page format of the journal. Also, the access statistics of the articles are available. The prepublication and the manuscript tracking system are also helpful for the authors.
Areas for improvement: In certain cases, I felt that the peer review process of the manuscripts was not up to international standards and that it should be strengthened. Also, the number of manuscripts in an issue is high and it may be difficult for readers to go through all of them. The journal can consider tightening of the peer review process and increasing the quality standards for the acceptance of the manuscripts. I faced occasional problems with the online manuscript submission (Pre-publishing) system, which have to be addressed.
Overall, the publishing process with JCDR has been smooth, quick and relatively hassle free and I can recommend other authors to consider the journal as an outlet for their work."



Dr. P. Ravi Shankar
KIST Medical College, P.O. Box 14142, Kathmandu, Nepal.
E-mail: ravi.dr.shankar@gmail.com
On April 2011
Anuradha

Dear team JCDR, I would like to thank you for the very professional and polite service provided by everyone at JCDR. While i have been in the field of writing and editing for sometime, this has been my first attempt in publishing a scientific paper.Thank you for hand-holding me through the process.


Dr. Anuradha
E-mail: anuradha2nittur@gmail.com
On Jan 2020

Important Notice

Original article / research
Year : 2024 | Month : October | Volume : 18 | Issue : 10 | Page : BC01 - BC06 Full Version

Electrophoretic Pattern of Serum Proteins in Pregnancy: A Cross-sectional Study


Published: October 1, 2024 | DOI: https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2024/72627.20144
Pawan Kumar Kare, Ayushmaan Varyani, Tripti Saxena, Anshita Rathore, Rekha Wadhwani

1. Demonstrator, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. 2. MBBS Undergraduate Student, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. 3. Professor and Head, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. 4. MBBS Undergraduate Student, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. 5. Professor, Department of Obstractics and Gynaecology, Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Correspondence Address :
Dr. Pawan Kumar Kare,
Demonstrator, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Multidisciplinary Research Unit (MRU), Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Royal Market, Bhopal-462001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
E-mail: pawankare4@gmail.com

Abstract

Introduction: Nutritional status during pregnancy is a determining factor for maternal and neonatal health outcomes. Protein is an essential nutrient for foetal development. If pregnancy is associated with an improper diet leading to protein deficiency, the prospects for maternal and foetal outcomes may be catastrophic. An electrophoretic study of serum protein patterns in pregnancy can help identify pregnancy-specific protein markers and facilitate the monitoring of feto-maternal health.

Aim: The aim of this study is to assess serum protein levels and their fractions (albumin, alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin, beta globulin, and gamma globulin) using gel electrophoresis in healthy pregnant women attending an antenatal clinic.

Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Department of Medical Biochemistry in collaboration with the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Sultania Zanana Hospital, associated with Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, between January 2021 and February 2021. Fifty normal non-pregnant women of childbearing age and 50 normal pregnant women in the first trimester of pregnancy attending an antenatal clinic were enrolled and followed-up through the second and third trimesters for investigations. Serum total protein, albumin, and globulin levels were estimated using a fully automated chemistry analyser, and the electrophoretic patterns of serum protein fractions were analysed using an automated gel electrophoresis apparatus. Epi-Info statistical software was used for the statistical analysis of data, with p<0.05 considered the statistical significance level.

Results: The serum total protein level in non-pregnant women was 6.36±0.40 g/dL, while in pregnant women, it was 8.01±0.40 g/dL, 8.00±0.42 g/dL, and 6.36±0.43 g/dL in the first (T1), second (T2), and third (T3) trimesters, respectively. The serum albumin level was 3.90±0.30 g/dL in non-pregnant women, while in pregnant women it was 4.24±0.38 g/dL, 4.58±0.34 g/dL, and 3.87±0.36 g/dL in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. The globulin level in non-pregnant women was 2.46±0.28 g/dL, while in T1, T2, and T3 it was 3.86±0.22 g/dL, 3.42±0.20 g/dL, and 2.49±0.24 g/dL, respectively. A significant difference was found among the groups for serum total protein, serum albumin, and serum globulin. In non-pregnant women, the protein fractions- albumin, alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin, beta globulin, and gamma globulin- did not show any deviation from normal levels. However, there was a decrease in albumin and beta globulin levels, along with an increase in alpha-2 globulin levels in the first trimester. An increase in beta globulin and a decrease in gamma globulin levels were observed in the second trimester. In the third trimester, all these fractions did not show any significant alterations, except for gamma globulin.

Conclusion: Serum total protein, serum albumin, and serum globulin levels showed a significant difference. However, a slight increase in serum globulin levels compensated for the fall in albumin levels during pregnancy. Variations in the levels of beta globulin, alpha-2 globulin, and gamma globulin were observed during pregnancy, while, on the other hand, alpha-1 globulin did not show any alterations in pregnant women during the first, second, and third trimesters, although its level was higher in pregnant women compared to non-pregnant women.

Keywords

Foetal health, Gestational age, Maternal health, Nutrition

Gestation, defined as the period between conception and delivery, is associated with an increased dietary protein demand. During pregnancy, a female undergoes numerous physiological changes, along with the rapid growth of the foetus and the placenta (1). Therefore, from this perspective, the nutritional status during pregnancy is considered a determinant factor for maternal and neonatal health outcomes (2),(3).

If pregnancy is associated with an improper diet leading to protein deficiency, the prospects for maternal and foetal outcomes may be catastrophic. Protein and vitamin deficiencies are common among pregnant women belonging to lower socioeconomic groups, which can adversely affect serum protein concentrations (4). From a biochemical viewpoint, nutritional status is assessed through various tests that measure levels of haemoglobin, circulating iron, vitamins, and trace elements (5),(6).

To ensure the development of the foetus, the body undergoes a series of physiological changes. Progesterone and estrogen levels increase throughout pregnancy, which suppresses the hypothalamus and, consequently, menstrual cycles (7). These alterations, necessary to cope with adaptations, are reflected in the biochemical profiles and are distinct from the non-pregnant state.

Protein status is typically evaluated by measuring levels of total serum proteins, albumin, or the plasma ratio of non-essential to essential amino acids (8). Albumin constitutes 41-53 g/L of plasma proteins in normal non-pregnant females (9) and plays a major role in stabilising extracellular fluid volume by contributing to the oncotic pressure of plasma. Albumin levels generally decrease during pregnancy due to increased blood volume and transfer to the foetus. However, significant deviations from the expected decrease could indicate underlying issues such as protein malnutrition or liver dysfunction (10).

Globulins are a group of proteins found in blood and are synthesised by the liver. They play important roles in liver function, blood clotting, and fighting infections (11). Levels of alpha-1 and alpha-2 globulins typically increase during pregnancy, particularly in the third trimester (12),(13). This rise is attributed to the production of pregnancy-associated proteins like alpha-fetoprotein and alpha-1-antitrypsin, which contribute to foetal development and maternal health (10). Significant deviations from the expected rise could warrant further investigation. Beta globulin levels, particularly transferrin, may increase during pregnancy due to the heightened iron demands of the developing foetus (14). However, significant deviations could indicate underlying conditions such as infections or liver disease. Gamma globulin levels may not significantly change during pregnancy, but the specific types of immunoglobulins can be altered (15).

Gel electrophoresis is a widely recognised technique used to separate and identify serum protein fractions, namely albumin, α1-globulin, α2-globulin, β-globulin, and γ-globulin, based on charge, size, and isoelectric point (16). It is a convenient, fast, and inexpensive method, as it requires only microgram quantities of protein (17). The electrophoretic patterns of serum proteins in pregnant women have also been previously investigated. Brown T reported decreased total serum protein and serum albumin in the third trimester of pregnancy (18). Kulkarni BS et al., also reported a decline in total protein due to a decrease in the albumin fraction (19).

Very few studies (20)-(22) have reported on serum protein patterns in pregnant women using a variety of techniques. However, the results are not in complete agreement with each other. Variations in serum protein levels in these studies may be attributed to different racial groups, sample sizes, local dietary patterns, local health facilities, and varying physiological and pathological conditions (23),(24).

Pregnancy represents the most anabolic period of a female’s life cycle. Protein, as a nutrient, is an essential component for the proper development of a growing foetus. Despite the importance of maintaining adequate levels of plasma proteins in pregnant women, there are not enough studies on the prevalence of protein deficiencies, and data from descriptive and analytical assessments remain insufficient. This study focuses on pregnant women in Central India and aims to contribute valuable data on protein profiles specific to this underrepresented population. Additionally, this study examines protein patterns within defined gestational age ranges (e.g., 1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimesters) rather than throughout the entire pregnancy, providing a more detailed picture of how protein levels change during pregnancy in this population.

Therefore, in light of these considerations, the present study was undertaken to assess serum protein levels and their fraction patterns using gel electrophoresis in healthy pregnant women attending an antenatal clinic in a tertiary care hospital setting.

Material and Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted in the Department of Medical Biochemistry in collaboration with the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Sultania Zanana Hospital, associated with Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. A total of 70 pregnant women who attended the antenatal care clinic between January 2021 and February 2021 were screened for enrolment in the study. Out of these, 50 pregnant women agreed to participate and were deemed eligible in the first trimester, yielding a response rate of 71.42%. These same 50 pregnant women were followed up for investigations in the second and third trimesters. Along with this, 50 normal non-pregnant healthy women of childbearing age were also included in this study. Normal pregnant women in their first trimester, aged between 20 and 30 years, with singleton pregnancies, and who were normotensive and normoglycaemic, were included in the study. Pregnant women with pre-existing medical conditions such as thyroid problems, hypertension, gestational diabetes, urinary tract infections, renal disease, or any history of obstetric or medical complications were excluded from the study. Enrolment of study participants was conducted after 2obtaining approval from the Institutional Ethics Committee (Letter No. 11595/MC/IEC/2020, Bhopal, dated 14/05/2020) at Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal, and written informed consent was obtained from all study participants. After enrolment, all participants underwent a detailed clinical history, general physical examination, systemic examination, and data were recorded in a case proforma sheet. The Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated, and the study participants were categorised based on their BMI according to the criteria of the World Health Organisation (WHO) (25). The socio-economic status of the study participants was classified according to the BG Prasad socio-economic classification (26),(27). For the convenience of statistical calculation the upper class and upper middle class were categorised as “upper class”, the middle class were categorised as “middle class” and lower middle class and lower class were categorised as “lower class”.

Sample collection and lab investigations: A 5 mL fasting blood sample was collected in a plain test tube and an EDTA tube. To separate the serum, the blood was centrifuged, and the serum was stored in an Eppendorf tube at 2-8°C for the study of electrophoretic patterns of serum proteins in the Department of Medical Biochemistry. Routine laboratory investigations, such as a Complete Blood Count (CBC with haemoglobin) and serum glucose, were conducted in the clinical lab and recorded in the case sheets. Serum total protein, albumin, and globulin levels were estimated using a fully automated chemistry analyser in the clinical biochemistry laboratory and the Multidisciplinary Research Unit. To study the electrophoretic pattern of serum protein fractions (albumin, alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin, beta globulin, and gamma globulin), serum proteins were analysed using an automated gel electrophoresis apparatus (HYDRASCAN, SEBIA, France) for all blood samples.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The Epi-info statistical software was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated using frequencies and percentages for categorical data, and means and standard deviations for continuous data. Data were presented as Mean±SD, number (n), and percentage (%). Differences were assessed using student’s t-tests for continuous data and Chi-square tests for categorical data. An ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test was also employed to assess differences among groups. Statistical significance was considered to be p<0.05.

Results

According to (Table/Fig 1), the mean age of women in the non-pregnant participant group was 25.14±3.72 years, while the mean age for women in the pregnant participant group was 24.18±3.35 years. Out of 100 participants, the majority of women, 72 (72%), belonged to rural areas, while only 28 (28%) were from urban areas. Eleven out of the 100 women were from a higher socio-economic background, while 27% and 62% belonged to middle and lower socio-economic groups, respectively. Additionally, most of the participants (62%) were non-vegetarian, while 38% were vegetarian.

However, no significant difference was found between the groups for the aforementioned variables. A significant difference was reported for Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP), Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP), haemoglobin, and serum glucose levels among the groups. There was no significant difference found in BMI among the groups. According to (Table/Fig 2), the majority of women (67%) had a normal BMI. Fourteen percent were underweight, 17% were overweight, and 2% were classified as obese.

The serum protein levels among normal non-pregnant women and pregnant women in the first, second, and third trimesters are presented in (Table/Fig 3).

The mean total serum protein concentration in non-pregnant women was 6.36±0.40 g/dL, while in pregnant women, it was reported as 8.01±0.40 g/dL, 8.00±0.42 g/dL, and 6.36±0.43 g/dL in the first (T1), second (T2), and third (T3) trimesters, respectively. The mean serum albumin levels were noted to be 3.90±0.30 g/dL for non-pregnant women, while they were 4.24±0.38 g/dL, 4.58±0.34 g/dL, and 3.87±0.36 g/dL for pregnant women in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. The total globulin levels in non-pregnant women were 2.46±0.28 g/dL, whereas the values reported for pregnant women in T1, T2, and T3 were 3.86±0.22 g/dL, 3.42±0.20 g/dL, and 2.49±0.24 g/dL, respectively. The differences in serum protein, albumin, and globulin levels among the groups were found to be statistically significant.

Data regarding the various fractions of proteins as a percentage of total proteins are detailed in (Table/Fig 4).

The alpha-1 globulin levels were found to be 2.8 gm% for non-pregnant subjects, 4.8 gm% for the first trimester (T1), 4.2 gm% for the second trimester (T2), and 3.4 gm% for the third trimester (T3). The alpha-2 globulin fractions were reported to be 10.8 gm% for non-pregnant women, while they were 16.7 gm%, 9.0 gm%, and 10.9 gm% for pregnant women in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. The beta globulin levels were 11.1 gm% for non-pregnant women, 8.5 gm% for T1, 18.6 gm% for T2, and 12.1 gm% for T3 in pregnant women. Gamma globulin levels were reported to be 13.8 gm% for non-pregnant women, 17.6 gm% for T1, 10.9 gm% for T2, and 12.7 gm% for T3. The A:G ratio was found to be 1.60 for non-pregnant women, while for pregnant women, it showed a steady increment with increasing gestational age, measuring 1.10, 1.34, and 1.56 for T1, T2, and T3, respectively, as shown in (Table/Fig 4). The representative image of serum protein electrophoresis for non-pregnant women is shown in (Table/Fig 5).

In normal pregnant women, all fractions, such as albumin, alpha-1 globulin, alpha-2 globulin, beta globulin, and gamma globulin, did not show any deviation from the normal values. The representative image of serum protein electrophoresis for pregnant women in the first trimester showed a decrease in albumin and beta globulin levels, along with an increase in alpha-2 globulin levels, as demonstrated in (Table/Fig 6). The representative image of serum protein electrophoresis for pregnant women in the second trimester is shown in (Table/Fig 7).

The serum protein electrophoresis analysis in the second trimester revealed an increased beta globulin level and a decrease in gamma globulin level; however, other fractions did not show significant alterations. The representative image of serum protein electrophoresis for pregnant women in the third trimester is shown in (Table/Fig 8), where all the serum protein fractions were found to be within normal ranges; however, a slight increase in gamma globulin levels was observed.

Discussion

In the present study, a cohort of pregnant and non-pregnant women from different age groups, socioeconomic backgrounds, and dietary patterns was examined. As shown in (Table/Fig 1), most of the women (47%), both pregnant and non-pregnant, belong to the age group of 20-23 years. The mean age of pregnant women was 24.18±3.35 years, while for non-pregnant women, it was 25.14±3.72 years. Most of the women belong to middle and lower socioeconomic groups, where early marriages and conception are common. According to the National Family Health Survey-III, the occurrence of pregnancy at a young age is more prevalent among women with no education than among those with 12 or more years of education (28). Besides the lack of education, the prevalence of religious and cultural beliefs also promotes marrying and conceiving at a young age. However, other studies show that advanced maternal age can lead to an increased frequency of adverse pregnancy outcomes (29),(30). Higher educational levels, career-oriented thinking, and shifts in cultural values are some reasons that contribute to delaying pregnancy (31).

From (Table/Fig 1), it has been observed that the majority of women (62%) who participated in this study consumed a non-vegetarian diet. This reflects the customary dietary patterns prevalent in the region. Despite the higher prevalence of a non-vegetarian diet, the protein content in the serum of non-pregnant women is on the lower end of the spectrum, indicating poor nutritional status and inadequate dietary intake. During pregnancy, these protein levels are found to be increased, as proper nutrition is provided to pregnant women. (Table/Fig 2) gives us insight into the BMI of the study subjects. Most women (67%) from both the pregnant and non-pregnant groups were classified as having a normal weight. Meanwhile, 17% were reported to be overweight, and 14% were categorised as underweight. Only 2% of the women were obese. When compared to socioeconomic factors, women from upper socioeconomic groups were typically classified as normal weight or overweight, whereas women from middle and lower socioeconomic statuses were more likely to be in the normal or underweight categories.

According to (Table/Fig 3), the mean total serum protein concentration in non-pregnant women was 6.36±0.40 g/dL, while in pregnant women, it was reported to be 8.01±0.40 g/dL, 8.00±0.42 g/dL, and 6.36±0.43 g/dL in the First (T1), Second (T2), and Third (T3) trimesters, respectively. The decline in total serum protein levels was consistent with the data reported by Smith EK et al., and MacGillivray I and Tovey JE (32),(33). A significant decrease in total protein levels was observed in the third trimester. This can be attributed to the extensive maternal-to-foetal transfer of nutrients during this period, owing to the higher rates of foetal growth (34). The lower values of total serum protein levels in non-pregnant women indicate the poor nutritional status of women in the nearby region. A similar finding was reported by Alemnji G et al., (35). The decreasing values of total proteins were more pronounced in women from middle and lower socioeconomic backgrounds, for both pregnant and non-pregnant subjects. Similar findings were also reported by Gómez-Cantarino S et al., (36). A few studies have reported changes in total serum protein, typically observed during dehydration or fluid overload, with insignificant changes in the albumin-to-globulin (A:G) ratio (37),(38). Lund CJ and Donovan JC, have also reported that plasma volume steadily increases during pregnancy, from the sixth to the thirty-sixth week, by about 50% (39). Thus, when interpreting serum concentrations of protein during pregnancy, factors that alter plasma volumes and cause haemodilution should be considered (40),(41). The decline in total protein levels may be associated with hydremia during pregnancy, as stated by Brown T in their study (18).

The mean concentration of serum albumin levels was found to be 3.90±0.30 g/dL for non-pregnant women, while it was 4.24±0.38 g/dL, 4.58±0.34 g/dL, and 3.87±0.36 g/dL for pregnant women in the first, second, and third trimesters, respectively. The level of maternal serum albumin was found to decrease significantly with advancing gestational age. A certain degree of decline in serum albumin levels during the progression of pregnancy is considered normal (41),(42). The decrease in the third trimester is particularly significant. This trend is similar to previous studies (34),(43). Low serum albumin values in the third trimester have often been linked to an increased risk of infant and maternal mortality and morbidity, as reported by O’Connell TX et al., and Sufrin S et al., (44),(45). The decline in serum albumin was notably significant among women from lower socioeconomic categories. This finding is consistent with studies carried out by Caso G et al., and Butte NF et al., (46),(47). The total globulin level in non-pregnant women was 2.46±0.28 g/dL, while the values reported for pregnant women in the first (T1), second (T2), and third (T3) trimesters were 3.86±0.22 g/dL, 3.42±0.20 g/dL, and 2.49±0.24 g/dL, respectively. The elevated globulin levels in pregnant women compared to non-pregnant women were significantly noted. This increase can be attributed to a compensation for the fall in serum albumin levels with advancing gestational age. However, Knopp RH et al., reported that there was no significant change in globulin levels due to pregnancy (48). Similarly, Xydas NP et al., found no significant difference in maternal serum protein levels due to advancing gestational age (49). According to (Table/Fig 4), the alpha-1 globulin level was found to be 2.8 gm% for non-pregnant women, and 4.8 gm%, 4.2 gm%, and 3.4 gm% for pregnant women in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. In this study, pregnant women exhibited higher levels of alpha-1 globulin in their serum than non-pregnant women, which may be due to the involvement of pregnancy-associated proteins. The alpha-2 globulin fractions were reported to be 10.8 gm% for non-pregnant women, while they were 16.7 gm%, 9.0 gm%, and 10.9 gm% for pregnant women in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. These findings do not align with previous studies conducted by Brown T (18) and MacGillivray I and Tovey JE, which reported a significant and steady rise in alpha-1 and alpha-2 globulin levels throughout pregnancy (33). The beta globulin levels were reported as 11.1 gm% for non-pregnant women, 8.5 gm% for T1, 18.6 gm% for T2, and 12.1 gm% for T3. A similar increase in beta globulin levels has been reported by Brown T, Kulkarni BS et al., and Coryell et al., (18),(19),(50). The gamma globulin level was found to be 13.8 gm% for non-pregnant women, and 17.6 gm%, 10.9 gm%, and 12.7 gm% for T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Brown T and Coryell Mn et al., also reported a similar decline in gamma globulin levels (18),(50). As corroborated by Menon MK et al., higher levels of gamma globulins may suggest a probable chronic infection during childhood or adolescence (51). It was observed that the mean values of total proteins, serum albumin, and globulins were higher for women belonging to upper socioeconomic groups compared to those from middle and lower socioeconomic groups. This data aligns with previous studies conducted by Gómez-Cantarino S et al., (36). There has been no study on changes in maternal serum protein levels during pregnancy in our region for a considerable time.

Therefore, the observations from this study suggest novel laboratory findings and may encourage further research into maternal health during pregnancy.

Limitation(s)

This study had a smaller sample size, which may not represent the entire population of India or, more specifically, our region as a whole. Regional variations could affect the data elsewhere.

Conclusion

In conclusion, socio-economically, women from middle and lower socioeconomic groups were in poorer condition. This indicates an overall low protein level in both pregnant and non-pregnant women from the Central India region. A significant difference was found among the groups for serum total protein, serum albumin, and serum globulin levels; however, the serum globulin levels showed a slight increase, indicating compensation for the decrease in albumin levels. This study also demonstrated that globulin fractions did not show any distinct pattern during pregnancy; however, the alterations in globulin fractions according to the trimester highlight the importance of pregnancy-associated proteins. Further large-scale studies are needed to analyse and address these findings.

Key Message

Foetal health, Gestational age, Maternal health, Nutrition

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DOI and Others

DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2024/72627.20144

Date of Submission: May 04, 2024
Date of Peer Review: May 21, 2024
Date of Acceptance: Aug 10, 2024
Date of Publishing: Oct 01, 2024

AUTHOR DECLARATION:
• Financial or Other Competing Interests: None
• Was Ethics Committee Approval obtained for this study? Yes
• Was informed consent obtained from the subjects involved in the study? Yes
• For any images presented appropriate consent has been obtained from the subjects. NA

PLAGIARISM CHECKING METHODS:
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EMENDATIONS: 6

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